Bou Ghanem E.N., Clark S., Du X., Wu D., Camili A., Leong J.M., Meydani S.N. The rabbit thoracic cavity is small and the thymus, which is located in the cranial mediastinum, persists in the adult. Reproductive disorders of rabbits include bacterial infections and metabolic disorders. We think that rat pneumococcal sepsis models are attractive models for testing new drugs that have the potential to improve outcomes in sepsis. The Piroth model mimicked lethal pneumococcal lobar pneumonia with subsequent parenchymal consolidations and bacteremia [101]. Of note, in 1996, Iizawa and colleagues [71] elaborated a model in which nasopharyngeal carriage was achieved through the aerosol route and pneumonia was subsequently induced by airway obstruction caused by IT instillation of 20 L of 2% formalin. The first described rabbit model to our knowledge was based on instillation of pathogens through a catheter into the trachea [99]. A rabbit may look healthy in the evening and be dead the next morning. WebRabbits fed a suitable diet and kept in a healthy environment can live as long as 10 to 12 years. has advantages in terms of feasibility due to cost, access, and availability. The tracheal puncture technique, although more invasive than the oro-tracheal, avoids contamination of the inoculum with oral flora [56] and has an unexpected low perioperative mortality (around 4%) and allows recovery within a few hours [57]. Subsequent models developed a method of IB instillation of bacteria [100,101]. Digestive disorders in rabbits include both noninfectious disorders (for example, hairballs) and infectious diseases. S. pneumoniae is also an important colonizer of the upper respiratory tract of children under five years of age, with serotypes 3, 6A, 6B, 15, and 19F being the most frequently detected in healthy carriers globally [22]. It rarely occurs in pet rabbits. Owners of infected rabbits should avoid close contact with their pets and use disposable gloves, followed by thorough hand and arm washing when handling infected rabbits, cleaning cages and equipment, or disposing of waste materials. Rabbits that carry the fungus without showing any signs are very common. Topical and injected antibiotics are also used. The -tocopherol form of vitamin E reverses age-associated susceptibility to streptococcus pneumoniae lung infection by modulating pulmonary neutrophil recruitment. Pneumolysin induces the salient histologic features of pneumococcal infection in the rat lung in vivo. Accessibility Intestinal coccidiosis can occur regardless of the conditions in which rabbits are housed. This group of rabbits has been bred for a coat that resembles that of chinchillas, and they are also accustomed to being handled by humans [97]. Development and Challenges of a Rabbit Model System of However, studies on causes and rates of mortality on rabbit farms during pre- and postweaning stages are limited. WebThe terms " necrotizing pneumonia " or "lung gangrene" are used to describe pneumonia that is complicated by necrosis and numerous . Antibiotic treatment may not cure the infection, however. 1. The Both types are caused by Eimeria protozoa. Lower respiratory tract infections, as defined in the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2016, include pneumonia and bronchiolitis [1]. Southam D.S., Dolovich M., OByrne P.M., Inman M.D. Conjunctivitis in rabbits is transmitted by direct contact with an infected rabbit or contaminated objects, such as bedding materials. Infection results in fever and causes liver damage, inflammation of the intestines, and damage to lymph nodes, followed by a disorder of blood clotting and bleeding within multiple organs. If antibiotic treatment is started early (the first day the doe stops eating), the rabbit may be saved and damage limited to 1 or 2 mammary glands. The hair may fall out, and the area may become infected or infested with fly larvae (maggots). Lethal pneumonia in a captive juvenile chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) due to human-transmitted human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) and infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae. Received 2019 Aug 14; Accepted 2019 Aug 26. Table legend. Only rarely is anesthesia delivered through the IV route [46]. Wang Y., Jiang B., Guo Y., Li W., Tian Y., Sonnenberg G.F., Weiser J.N., Ni X., Shen H. Cross-protective mucosal immunity mediated by memory Th17 cells against Streptococcus pneumoniae lung infection. These parasites irritate the lining of the ear and cause fluid and thick brown crusts to build up, creating an ear canker. Infested rabbits scratch and shake their head and ears. Further detailed in-depth reviews should focus on specific intervention targets in order to advance the science regarding pneumococcal disease and help improve outcomes of patients with pneumococcal pneumonia. The oral papillomavirus is distinct from the Shope papillomavirus (which is also distinct from the Shope fibroma virus). Results. However, despite a very significant decrease in the global incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease, a relative increase in colonization and infection with serotypes not covered by vaccine has been reported (an effect called serotype replacement) [23]. These animals were obtained from Sprague-Dawley rats in the 1950s and rederived to improve the health status of the animals. Moreover, penicillin-resistant pneumococcal strains and other resistant phenotypes have been established in the existing rat models in order to evaluate the efficacy of new antibiotics [78,83]. Relationship between the inoculum dose of Streptococcus pneumoniae and pneumonia onset in a rabbit model. The Sprague Dawley rat is another hybrid outbred albino rat, derived from the Wistar rat. The outbreak was contained, the virus was eliminated, and the USA remains free of this disease. Sequestration and homing of bone marrow-derived lineage negative progenitor cells in the lung during pneumococcal pneumonia. Andisi V.F., Hinojosa C.A., De Jong A., Kuipers O.P., Orihuela C.J., Bijlsma J.J. Pneumococcal gene complex involved in resistance to extracellular oxidative stress. Rat models of experimental pneumonia are also used to assess the virulence of different pneumococcal serotypes, especially in children [79]. The number of cases of pneumonia is directly proportional to the level of ammonia in the cage, hutch, or rabbitry. Ventilation is of utmost importance to provide good air quality. Affected rabbits are anorectic, listless, dyspneic, and might have a fever. Cellular senescence increases expression of bacterial ligands in the lungs and is positively correlated with increased susceptibility to pneumococcal pneumonia. Signs include lack of energy, rough coat, staining around the hind end, and death within 48 hours. Mastitis (inflammation of the breasts) affects nursing does and may cause fatal blood infection. Mouse strains can be classified into outbred and inbred. Cell-cell interactions and bronchoconstrictor eicosanoid reduction with inhaled carbon monoxide and resolvin D1. Hinojosa E., Boyd A.R., Orihuela C.J. Characterization of an animal model of ventilator-acquired pneumonia. In addition, invasive bacteremic pneumococcal swine models allow researchers to assess pathogenesis (e.g., marked platelet activation and hyperreactivity reactions), subsequent vascular complications, and assess therapies to prevent these complications (i.e., by using antiplatelet inhibitors) [127]. FOIA CF-370: , , - Humans and other mammals are also not affected. Dommaschk A., Ding N., Tort Tarres M., Bittersohl L.F., Maus R., Stolper J., Jonigk D., Braubach P., Lippmann T., Welte T., et al. The mite is readily transmitted by direct contact. Diseases that can be Spread from Rabbits to People, Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases of Rabbits, Disorders Affecting Multiple Body Systems. It is difficult to get rid of these parasites on domestic rabbits. Affected rabbits develop small blisters or slow-healing sores that become covered with a heavy scab. Because diagnosis is rarely made before death, treatment is seldom attempted. New Zealand white strains of rabbits are commonly being used for research activities. mortality Pharmacodynamic assessment of clarithromycin in a murine model of pneumococcal pneumonia. The most common diseases of rabbits include digestive system problems, respiratory infections, and skin disorders. Corneal ulcers are treated with antibiotic eye ointments and sometimes with surgery. Williams A.E., Jos R.J., Brown J.S., Chambers R.C. Disorders and Diseases of Rabbits - MSD Veterinary Manual A technique similar to the one used for intrabronchial and intratracheal instillation also allows collection of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) to determine drug concentrations in the animals lung [13]. Disorders and Diseases of Rabbits Hutches should be kept dry and the feces removed often. effects of aspirated thickened water on survival The eyelids, nose, lips, and ears become puffy, which gives a swollen appearance to the head. High-fiber diets appear to help prevent the disease in weaned rabbits. Fur mite infestations usually do not cause any signs unless the rabbit is weakened by age, illness, or stress. The advantages of an animal model of VAP are based on the accurate control of significant variables such as the precise timing of the infectious challenge, the effect of antimicrobial therapy on cultures, and the possibility to perform accurate pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies on drugs [119]. Generally, cyclophosphamide is started three or four days prior to infection. Serotype 1 in particular carries a high risk of complications, such as empyema [19]. Follow your veterinarians treatment program carefully for the best results. Signs of ketosis include loss of appetite, dullness of eyes, sluggishness, and difficulty breathing. Animal models of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cho S.J., Rooney K., Choi A.M.K., Stout-Delgado H.W. Another study on pneumococcal sepsis from pulmonary origin evaluating sodium bisulfide (NaHS) as inflammatory drug, registered alterations of physiological variables 4 h after the IT inoculum [82]. On the hosts side, genetic background influences susceptibility to infection. For this reason, colonization and infection need to be induced through experimental procedures. These strains have higher genetic variability that allows to recreate a populations different responses to infection [33]. This technique has been shown to reproducibly deliver more than 99% of the inoculum to the lungs [16]. Sibila O., Agusti C., Torres A., Baquero S., Gando S., Patrn J.R., Morato J.G., Goffredo D.H., Bassi N., Luna C.M. Laboratory tests are required to distinguish between these diseases. This is followed by infection with disease-causing bacteria. Dual function of pneumolysin in the early pathogenesis of murine pneumococcal pneumonia. In order to obtain infection via the oro-tracheal route, the first step is to suspend the animal vertically by its upper incisors [26,47,48,49,50]. Ringworm is a fungal infection that is common in rabbits. Affected rabbits stretch out and breathe rapidly. Death usually occurs within 1 to 2 weeks after signs appear. Occasionally, a rabbit survives for several weeks; in these cases, thick lumps appear on the nose, ears, and forefeet. The seasonal incidence of the disease, signs (especially the swollen genitalia), and high death rate all help veterinarians make the diagnosis. Efficacy of antimicrobial chemotherapy in experimental rat pneumonia: Effects of impaired phagocytosis. To facilitate distal alveolar migration of the bacteria by gravity [54], the mice are held in a vertical position until anesthesia has waned (approximately 30 min for pentobarbital [45] and 2 min for inhaled anesthetics [45,55]). Adjusted treatment based on mNGS results can reduce the 28-day and 90-day mortality of patients with severe pneumonia, and shorten the length of hospital and ICU stay. Tuvim M.J., Clement C.G., Huang E.S., Cote G.J., Evans S.E., Lei X., Deftos L.J., Gagel R.F., Dickey B.F. Deletion of the gene encoding calcitonin and calcitonin gene-related peptide does not affect the outcome of severe infection in mice. The adult worm lives in the large intestine. Additionally, NHPs models are appropriate to conduct interventional studies to assess the potential mechanisms by how therapies such as inhaled carbon monoxide may have a therapeutic potential for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) [139,140,141]. Community-acquired pneumonia. Otitis media (middle ear infection) and otitis interna (inner ear infection) are caused by bacterial infections. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand aggravates the lung inflammatory response to Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in mice: Role of dendritic cells. Azoulay-Dupuis E., Vallee E., Veber B., Bedos J.P., Bauchet J., Pocidalo J.J. Birth Defects Res. Pneumonia Development of Rabbit Models of Acute Pneumonia (Non Sauve C., Azoulay-Dupuis E., Moine P., Darras-Joly C., Rieux V., Carbon C., Bdos J.P. Efficacies of cefotaxime and ceftriaxone in a mouse model of pneumonia induced by two penicillin- and cephalosporin-resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae. WebTularemia pneumonia follows either inhalation of contaminated aerosols or is secondary to bacterial spread from a local site and is a much more serious form of tularemia. Alcantara R.B., Preheim L.C., Gentry-Nielsen M.J. Pneumolysin- induced complement depletion during experimental pneumococcal bacteremia. Leung L.S., Szal E.G.J., Drachman R.H. Figure 5 Percentage of severe disease and mortality, by age strata. Factors that contribute to the disease include recent dietary changes, too much or too little fiber in the diet, antibiotic treatment, environmental stress, and infection with other bacteria. Vaccination from 12 weeks of age is effective and Idanpaan-Heikkila I.P., Simon M., Zopf D., Vullo T., Cahill P., Sokol K., Tuomanen E. Oligosaccharides interfere with the establishment and progression of experimental pneumococcal pneumonia. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies The main advantages in comparison to mouse are the bigger size and therefore the amenability to perform some procedures and the possibility of using a larger bacterial burden. Hoover J.L., Singley C.M., Elefante P., DeMarsh P., Zalacain M., Rittenhouse S. Reducing antibacterial development risk for GSK1322322 by exploring potential human dose regimens in nonclinical efficacy studies using immunocompetent rats. Outdoor hutches should be constructed so that they can be sprinkled with water in hot, humid weather. Rabbit Guide A simple guide to caring for pet The most common diseases of rabbits include digestive system problems, respiratory infections read more ). Some pneumococcal serotypes feature different virulence as compared to the human host. Those that survive become progressively weaker and develop a rough coat. Another group used nonsurgical transthoracic inoculation of pneumococci entrapped in cooled agar particles into the mid-right lungs [79]. Ganzinger U., Haslberger A. Pharmacokinetics of cephalosporins in normal and septicemic rabbits. The hair becomes a problem only if too much is consumed or if it builds up in the stomach and causes a blockage (commonly called a hairball). Fever is often present. Role of lysosomes and cathepsin inhibitor in plasma during pneumococcal infection. Streptococcus pneumoniae has been linked to high rates of morbidity and mortality, especially in children under 2, immunocompromised individuals, and the elderly population. In mild cases, antibiotics may be helpful. Major diseases caused by S. pneumoniae are otitis media, pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. Guckian J.C., Morrey B.F., Kirby H.B. The infection causes inflammation of the lungs and of the membrane surrounding the lungs. Streptococcus pneumoniae remains the most common bacterial pathogen causing lower respiratory tract infections and is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, especially in children and the elderly. The contaminated hutch and its equipment should be thoroughly disinfected. WebTo keep your rabbit healthy and happy throughout their life, you need to understand your rabbits needs. Pneumococcal pneumonia in a rat model of cirrhosis: Effects of cirrhosis on pulmonary defense mechanisms against Streptococcus pneumoniae. Croisier D., Etienne M., Bergoin E., Charles P.E., Lequeu C., Piroth L., Portier H., Chavanet P. Mutant selection window in levofloxacin and moxifloxacin treatments of experimental pneumococcal pneumonia in a rabbit model of human therapy. If you notice that your rabbit has stopped eating or has other signs of a digestive problem, see your veterinarian promptly. They lose weight and may develop infections that can damage the inner ear, reach the central nervous system, and result in head tilt or "wry neck" (a twisting of the neck to one side). A severe inflammatory reaction was detected by elevation of serum cytokines, including Interleukin (IL) 1Ra, IL-6, and IL-8 after infection. Experimental infection of rhesus macaques with Streptococcus pneumoniae: A possible model for vaccine assessment. We believe that the technique that features the best balance between advantages and disadvantages is the oro-tracheal: it is fast and minimally traumatic for the animal. In humans, the pneumococcal serotype prevalence differs over time, by age group and by geographic area, and is influenced by vaccine use. Several factors may contribute to the formation of kidney stones, including nutritional imbalance (especially the calcium:phosphorus ratio), heredity, infection, inadequate water intake, and metabolic disorders. Mapara M., Thomas B.S., Bhat K.M. Affected rabbits may have no appetite and have a rough coat. The rabbit pinworm usually does not cause disease but may be upsetting to owners. Some rabbits may develop long-lasting infections that appear as a wasting disease. Philipp M.T., Purcell J.E., Martin D.S., Buck W.R., Plauch G.B., Ribka E.P., DeNoel P., Hermand P., Leiva L.E., Bagby G.J., et al. WebRabbits show few signs and die within 24 hours of fever onset. The incubation period is 3 to 6 weeks. This cancer is the primary reason for spaying (removing the ovaries and uterus) any nonbreeding female rabbits. Different mouse strains respond variably to pneumococcal challenge in terms of disease timing, severity, and outcome. Kalin M. Pneumococcal serotypes and their clinical relevance. Some affected rabbits have a head tilt. It occasionally affects adults and adolescent rabbits. Yanagihara K., Izumikawa K., Higa F., Tateyama M., Tokimatsu I., Hiramatsu K., Fujita J., Kadota J., Kohno S. Efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia, including patients with macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. Infected rabbits should not be bred. Affected rabbits rub their eyes with their front feet. Because there is no effective treatment, euthanasia is suggested. Table 2 summarized purposes of mice models. The most common of these are described here. Around 1 million of those people are admitted to the hospital, and another 50,000 die from pneumonia or its complications. The second type, caused by cottontail (Shope) papillomavirus, is characterized by horny warts on the neck, shoulders, ears, or abdomen and is primarily a natural disease of cottontail rabbits. The condition can appear suddenly or it can be long-lasting. Enhanced immediate inflammatory response to Streptococcus pneumoniae in the lungs of mice with pulmonary emphysema. Croisier D., Chavanet P., Lequeu C., Ahanou A., Nierlich A., Neuwirth C., Piroth L., Duong M., Buisson M., Portier H. Efficacy and pharmacodynamics of simulated human-like treatment with levafloxacin on experimental pneumonia induced with penicillin-resistant pneumococci with various susceptibilities to fluoroquinolones. However, the antibiotic oxytetracycline has helped in some cases. Finally, rat models are, in our opinion, also suitable to evaluate the pathogenesis of pneumococcal infections complications. Pneumonia in Rabbits Causes, Signs and Treatments IVIG-mediated protection against necrotizing pneumonia caused We searched Medline for any paper published in English language to March 1, 2019. Treatment is difficult and is aimed at controlling rather than curing the disease. WebPneumonia Data are for the U.S. Vaccination Percent of adults aged 18 and over who had ever received a pneumococcal vaccination: 24.0% (2021) Source: Interactive Summary Health Statistics for Adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2019-2021 Emergency department visits The trusted provider of veterinary information since 1955, Description and Physical Characteristics of Rabbits, Last review/revision Aug 2020 | Modified Oct 2022. [(accessed on 24 May 2018)]; File T.M., Jr. Clinical implications and treatment of multiresistant Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Death occasionally occurs after a short period of illness. Indeed, the case fatality rates of pneumonia in patients with hematological malignancies have been estimated at 4080% and may be as high as 90% in some recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) [ 35 ]. Induction of pulmonary inflammation by components of the pneumococcal cell surface. In this series, the age-standardised mortality rate with this reference population is 2.9 deaths per 100 COVID-19 patients admitted. published in 2016 found Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria to be the most abundant phyla found in the upper respiratory tract of aging mice [24]. Butorphanol Tramadol 8600 Rockville Pike Goldstein I., Wallet F., Nicolas-Robin A., Ferrari F., Marquette C.H., Rouby J.J. Calame W., Douwes-Idema A.E., van den Barselaar M.T., Mattie H. Contribution ofalveolar phagocytes to antibiotic efficacy in an experimental lung infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae. Treatment of pneumococcal postsplenectomy sepsis in the rat with human gamma-globulin. Fibromas may be found in domestic rabbits in areas where these tumors occur in wild rabbits and where husbandry practices allow contact with insects and ticks that transmit diseases. There is no treatment, but the infection appears to be self-limiting if susceptible rabbits are not continually introduced into the population. The legacy of this great resource continues in the online and mobile app versions today. As in all animal models, also in rabbit models of pneumococcal pneumonia establish inhaled or aspirated bacterial load threshold that determines the development of bacterial pneumonia is a standard part of model development and it is repeated every time a new strain is used in the model [102]. Hairballs in the stomach may also be a factor. There is no treatment. ASN100 improves survival in rabbit MRSA and MSSA pneumonia models. Rabbit Fever - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics Given their highly selected genome, inbred strains such as C57BL/6J, CBA, and BALB/cJ have a more uniform response to infection. Investigation of Pre- and Post-Weaning Mortalities in Rabbits effects of aspirated thickened water According to us, swine models are best suited to evaluate ventilator-associated pneumonia. In females, the vulva becomes inflamed and swollen with fluid; in males, the scrotum swells. Use outbred rabbits with normal immune system (not neutropenic) percent survival. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (, signs of a consolidation with asymmetric chest expansion. These tumors may persist for several months before regressing, leaving the rabbit essentially normal. These signs frequently recur. Ketosis is a rare disorder that may result in death of does 1 to 2 days before giving birth. Assessment of the efficacy of telithromycin simulating human exposures against S. pneumoniae with ribosomal mutations in a murine pneumonia model. The most common rat strains used for experimental purposes are Wistar, Sprague Dawley, and CD rats [76]. NLRP3 inflammasome activation in aged macrophages is diminished during Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. Intestinal infections are common and lead to diarrhea, which can quickly cause serious complications. Bdos J.P., Azoulay-Dupuis E., Moine P., Muffat-Joly M., Veber B., Pocidalo J.J., Valle E. Pharmacodynamic activities of ciprofloxacin and sparfloxacin in a murine pneumococcal pneumonia model: Relevance for drug efficacy. The most common laboratory findings include leukocytosis, or leukopenia if severe renal dysfunction, and decreased oxygenation. While the mouse is kept in a supine position, the neck is transilluminated with a light source, and a vertical midline incision is performed in order to expose the trachea, which is cannulated with a 2230 G needle held parallel to it [58,59,60,61,62,63]. However, the death rate among children younger than five years decreased by 57% since 2000, and the incidence of pneumonia decreased by 21% over the same time period [1]. The incidence of mastitis can be reduced if nest boxes are maintained without rough edges to the entrance, which can traumatize the teats when the doe jumps in and out of the nest box. Animal Models of Pneumococcal pneumonia - PMC Commercially available outbred mice for genome-wide association studies. Generally, capsular serotypes 25 and 6B are highly virulent [12]. By far, the most common tumor in rabbits is uterine adenocarcinoma (malignant tumor in the uterus). Pasteurella bacteria are the usual culprits, but other bacteria may cause rhinitis. Tyzzer disease, caused by Clostridium piliforme bacteria, is characterized by large amounts of watery diarrhea. Diet, antibiotic treatment, and other factors disturb naturally occurring gut bacteria and may make rabbits more susceptible to intestinal disease. Characterization of lung infection-induced TCR T cell phenotypes by CyTOF mass cytometry. The mixed infection results in a much more deadly syndrome. Summerfield A. If both horns are affected, the doe often becomes sterile. Rubins J.B., Charboneau D. Effect of anesthetics on pathogenesis of experimentally induced murine pneumococcal pneumonia. Rabbits are sensitive to heat. If all 4 feet are affected, they tiptoe when walking. The pathogen detection positive rate of mNGS was much higher than that of conventional methods. Pneumococcal bacteraemia during a recent decade. Tessier P.R., Kim M.K., Zhou W., Xuan D., Li C., Ye M., Nightingale C.H., Nicolau D.P. Rabbits groom themselves almost constantly, so their stomachs often contain hair. With the lenses of translational science this narrative review attempted to summarize relevant preclinical data on rodents, rabbits, swine, and non-human primates challenged with pneumococcal pneumonia infection. No Impairment in hostdefense against Streptococcus pneumoniae in obese CPEfat/fat mice. Rabbit calicivirus disease was first reported in 1984 in China. Sore hocks, also called ulcerative pododermatitis, does not actually involve the hock (the ankle joint) but instead affects the sole of the hindfoot and, less commonly, the front paws. Preventive measures include protecting rabbits from exposure to insects and ticks that transmit diseases. Rat models are also useful to focus on pneumococcal sepsis, especially on conditions related to immunodepression, such as post-splenectomy. X-ray images may be needed to check for bone involvement in severe cases. The major aims of studies on rat models of pneumococcal pneumonia consist in collecting data on pathogenesis, survival, bacterial counts in lung and blood, pathological and histological characteristics, drug efficacy, and vaccine evaluation both in adults and children (Table 3).
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